The Three Kingdoms period began around 1,800 years ago amid the chaos of the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220). The events of this time and tales about the rise and fall of the era’s various warlords were recorded and later became popular legends. They provided the inspiration for numerous works of poetry, literature and painting, with military commanders like Guan Yu even deified by later generations. All this led to the formation of a rich and colorful “Three Kingdoms culture” that still resonates to this day.

Guan Yu

Ming dynasty, 15th-16th century
Xinxiang Museum

Guandi Temple Murals <Zhang Fei Punishes Supervisor> (Cropped)

Qing dynasty, 18th century
Passed down by Fulong Temple, Shuimenta, Qingshuihe County, Hohhot City, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
Inner Mongolia Museum

Cao Cao founded the state of Wei. Using a power base inherited from his ancestors, he wielded influence at the heart of the Han dynasty court. This enabled him to achieve supremacy during turbulent times. Liu Bei founded the state of Shu. He claimed to be related to the Han imperial family and he fought to revive the Han dynasty’s fortunes. Sun Quan founded the state of Wu. He forged his own unique path to power by developing a strong naval network. These three men were lionized by later generations. This chapter uses specially-selected cultural artefacts to trace their roots.

The Han dynasty became one of the largest Chinese empires with a rule that extended across much of present-day China. However, the imperial court was rocked by internal political strife at the end of the 2nd century, with the reach of the emperor waning. Chaos reigned throughout society. The Yellow Turban Rebellion occurred when groups with beliefs that later developed into Taoism arose in the regions and tried to overthrow the old order, while the warlord Dong Zhuo launched a reign of tyranny in the Han capital Luoyang.

The states of Wei, Shu and Wu were formed at the end of the Eastern Han period. They became locked in a tripartite struggle, with fighting particularly fierce at their respective borders. After Cao Cao passed away in 220, he was succeeded by his son Cao Pi (Wen Di). Cao Pi then seized the throne from the Eastern Han emperor. This move was met with resistance from Liu Bei in Shu and Sun Quan in Wu, with each warlord claiming legitimacy and announcing the founding of their own states. This chapter traces this tumultuous transition to a new era through weapons from the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms periods together with cultural artefacts related to famous battles.

The state of Wei held sway in the Yellow River basin, the geographical centre of the Han dynasty. The state of Shu controlled the plain upstream of the Yangtze River, an area of rich natural beauty, while the state of Wu’s stronghold was located in the plains and coastal areas mid and-downstream of the Yangtze. These different climates gave rise to distinctive cultures and customs. This chapter explores the unique characteristics of the three states through artefacts excavated from these areas.

The transition from the end of the Eastern Han period to the Three Kingdoms period in the early 3rd century also saw the emergence of a new approach to tomb building. Tombs became less ostentatious as rulers began to place more value on simplicity and frugality. The philosophies and social values of these rulers are on full display in eminent ancient tombs scattered across each region, including the Cao Cao Mausoleum, which was excavated in 2008–2009.

After many long years of fighting, control of China ultimately eluded the forces of Wei, Shu and Wu. Instead, a powerful Wei general called Sima Yi rose to prominence, with his grandson Sima Yan going on to establish the Western Jin dynasty (265–420). The Sima administration established a new order in China while protecting the base of the powerful clans in each region.